Minggu, 27 Juni 2010

Sociolinguistics

Language is not as simply a design of sounds and grammars or structures: instead it is also a product of society in which it is used: the place where we live and the people with who we live are shaping and coloring the language. This point of view places language to be a product of human’s intellectual capacity as well as social mind. Many linguists believe that humans are genetically programmed to learn language; it takes social contact to flip the switch that makes us talk. So it is not simply the sounds, grammars and meanings of the world’s languages, but also how they function in their social settings. Unlike the formal linguistics, sociolinguistics analyzes language because it is varied in a great way. The variation of language is known as language varieties. In regard to the language users, language varieties are divided into two namely, the idiolects and the sociolects. Every idiolect is a realization of a sociolects which is shared by every individual member of speech community in a country. These varieties also can be found in Indonesia based on its history and the other factors

Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) is the official language of Indonesia. Indonesian is a normative form of the Riau dialect of Malay, an Austronesian language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries.

Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world. Of its large population the number of people who fluently speak Indonesian is fast approaching 100%, thus making Indonesian one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.[2] Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are often fluent in another regional language (examples include Javanese, Minangkabau and Sundanese) which are commonly used at home and within the local community. Most formal education, as well as nearly all national media and other forms of communication, are conducted in Indonesian. In East Timor, which was an Indonesian province from 1975 to 1999, Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other is English, alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese).

History

Indonesian is a normative form of the Malay language, an Austronesian (or Malayo-Polynesian) language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries. It was elevated to the status of official language with the Indonesian declaration of independence in 1945, drawing inspiration from the Sumpah Pemuda (Youth's Oath) event in 1928.[3]

Because of its origins, Indonesian (in its most standard form) is mutually intelligible with the official Malaysian form of Malay. However, it does differ from Malay in several aspects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are mainly due to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the "bazaar Malay" that was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by the other spoken languages of the islands: Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the literary Malay of earlier centuries.

Whilst Indonesian is spoken as a mother tongue (first language) by only a small proportion of Indonesia's large population (i.e. mainly those who reside within the vicinity of Jakarta), over 200 million people regularly make use of the national language - some with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation which boasts more than 300 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, the use of proper or 'good and correct' Indonesian (as opposed to Indonesian slang or regional dialects) is an essential means of communication across the archipelago. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, government bodies, schools, and universities, workplaces, amongst members of the Indonesian upper-class or nobility and also in many other formal situations.

Most native speakers of Indonesian would agree that the standard, correct version of the Indonesian language is rarely used in daily communication. One can find standard and correct Indonesian in books and newspapers, or listen to it when watching the news or television/radio broadcasts, but few native Indonesian speakers use formally correct language in their daily conversations. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to written standards), the degree of "correctness" of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) by comparison to its written form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to the fact that most Indonesians tend to combine certain aspects of their own local languages (eg. Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, and even Chinese dialects, particularly Hokkien) with Indonesian. The result is the creation of various types of 'regional' Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town. This phenomenon is exacerbated by the use of Indonesian slang, particularly in the cities. A classic example of a speaker of accented Indonesian is former president Soeharto, whose Javanese accent came through whenever he delivered a speech.

The Dutch colonisation left an imprint on the Indonesian language that can be seen in words such as polisi (police), kualitas (quality), wortel (carrot), kamar (room, chamber), rokok (cigarette), korupsi (corruption), persneling (gear), kantor (office), and resleting (zipper). Alongside Malay, Portuguese was the lingua franca for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century. Indonesian words derived from Portuguese include sabun (from sabão = soap), meja (from mesa = table), boneka (from boneca = doll), jendela (from janela = window), gereja (from igreja = church), bola (from bola = ball), bendera (from bandeira = flag), roda (from roda = wheel), sepatu (from sapato = shoes), kereta (from carreta = wagon), bangku (from banco = chair), keju (from queijo = cheese), garpu (from garfo = fork), terigu (from trigo = flour), mentega (from manteiga = butter), Sabtu (from sábado = Saturday) (or the Arabic Sabt = Saturday) and Minggu (from domingo = Sunday).[4] Some of the many words of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying Hokkien/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as traditional and simplified characters) include pisau (匕首 bǐshǒu - knife), loteng, (/ = lóu/céng - [upper] floor/ level), mie ( > Hokkien mī - noodles), lumpia (潤餅 (Hokkien = lūn-piáⁿ) - springroll), cawan, (茶碗 cháwǎn - teacup), teko (茶壺 > 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [Hokkien] = teapot) and even the widely used slang terms gua and lu (from the Hokkien 'goa' and 'lu/li' - meaning 'I/ me' and 'you'). From Sanskrit came words such as kaca (glass, mirror), raja (king), manusia (mankind) bumi/ dunia (earth/ world) and agama (religion). Words of Arabic origin include kabar (news), selamat/ salam (a greeting), senin (Monday), selasa (Tuesday), jumat (Friday), ijazah (diploma), hadiah (gift/present), mungkin (from mumkin = perhaps), maklum (understood), kitab (book), tertib (orderly) and kamus (dictionary). There are also words derived from Javanese, e.g. aku (meaning I/ me (informal) and its derivative form, mengaku (to admit or confess).

Classification

The Indonesian language is part of the Western Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian languages. According to the Ethnologue, Indonesian is modelled after Riau Malay, a form of Old Malay originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra.[5]

Geographic distribution

This is a map of where Indonesian is predominantly spoken. Dark green represents where Indonesian is spoken as a major language. Light green represents where it is a minority language.

The language is spoken throughout Indonesia (and East Timor), although it is used most extensively as a first language in urban areas and usually as a second or third language in more rural parts of Indonesia. It is also spoken by an additional 1.5+ million people worldwide, particularly in the Netherlands, and Philippines . Also spoken as daily language in some parts of Australia , East Timor, Saudi Arabia, Suriname, New Caledonia, and the United States.[6]

Official status

Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia.

Sounds

Phonology

The following are phonemes of modern Indonesian.

Vowels


Front

Central

Back

Close

i


u

Close-mid

e

ə

o

Open-mid

(ɛ)


(ɔ)

Open


a


Indonesian also has the diphthongs /ai/, /au/, and /oi/. In closed syllables, such as air (water), however, the two vowels are not pronounced as a diphthong.

Consonants


Labial

Apical

Postalveolar

Palatal

Velar

Glottal

Nasal

m

n


ɲ

ŋ


Plosive

p b

t d



k ɡ

ʔ

Affricate



tʃ dʒ




Fricative

(f)

s (z)

(ʃ)


(x)

h

Liquid


l r





Approximant

w



j



Note: The vowels between parentheses are allophones while the consonants in parentheses are loan phonemes and as such only occur in loanwords.

Pronunciation

  • /k/, /p/, and /t/ are unaspirated like in Romance languages or in Finnish, i.e. they are not followed by a noticeable puff of air as they often are in English words.
  • /t/ and /d/ are dental, rather than alveolar as in English.
  • In some words, glottal stop /ʔ/ can occur at the end of a syllable. It is written as ‹k› in the orthography, e.g. baik, bapak. Only a few Indonesian words have this sound in the middle, e.g. bakso (meatballs), and it may be represented by an apostrophe in Arabic derived words such as Al Qur'an.
  • Stress is placed on the penultimate (second-to-last) syllable of each base word. But if this syllable contains a schwa then the accent moves to the last syllable.

For more, and to listen to examples, see SEASite Guide to Pronunciation of Indonesian

Grammar

Word order

Adjectives, demonstrative pronouns and possessive pronouns follow the noun they modify.

The basic word order of Indonesian is Subject Verb Object (SVO). However many Indonesians will speak in a passive/objective voice, making use of the Object Verb Subject word order. This OVS word order in Indonesian will often permit the omission of the subject and/or object (i.e. ellipses of noun/pronoun) and can benefit the speaker/writer in two ways:

1) Adding a sense of politeness and respect to a statement or question

For example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:

Ellipses of pronoun (Subject & Object)

Literal English

Idiomatic English

Bisa dibantu?

Can + to be helped?

Can (I) help (you)?

2) Convenience when the subject is unknown, not important or implied by context

For example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:

Ellipses of pronoun (Implied Subject)

Literal English

Idiomatic English

Rumah ini dibeli lima tahun yang lalu

House this + to be purchased five year(s) ago

The house was purchased five years ago

Ultimately, the choice between active and passive voice (and therefore word order) is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.

Word Formation

Indonesian is an agglutinative language and new words are generally formed via three methods. New words can be created through affixation (the attaching of affixes onto root words), formation of a compound word (a composition of two or more separate words), or reduplication (repetition of words or portions of words).

Adjectives

Unlike in English, adjectives in the Indonesian language follow nouns:

Indonesian

Literal English word order

Normal English translation

Mobil merah

Car red

Red car

Dia orang yang terkenal sekali

He/she person which well-known very

He/she is a very famous/well-known person

(Sebuah) cerita panjang

(A) story long

A long story

Affixation

The Indonesian language utilises a complex system of affixes (i.e. prefix, infix, suffix and confix (circumfix)). Affixes are applied with certain rules which depend on the initial letter of a base word (BW = base word, eg. a habitual verb, adjective, etc in its simplest form), and/or the sound combination of the second syllable. For example:

  • The affix Ber + ajar (teach) = BeLajar (Note the deletion of 'R' and the addition of 'L')

= to study

  • The affixes Me + ajar + -kan = meNGajarkan (Note the addition of 'NG')

= to teach (transitive)

By comparison

  • The affix Ber + judi (gamble) = Berjudi (Note that Ber- remains unchanged)

= to gamble

  • The affixes Me + judi + -kan = meNjudikan (Note the addition of 'N')

= to gamble away (money, one's life, etc)


Also, depending on the affix used, a word can have different grammatical meanings (e.g. me + makan (memakan) means to eat something (in the sense of digesting it), while di + makan (dimakan) means to be eaten (passive voice), ter + makan (termakan) means to be accidentally eaten. Often two different affixes are used to change the meaning of a word. For example, duduk means to sit down, whereas men + duduk + kan (mendudukkan) means to sit someone/ something down. Men + duduk + i (menduduki) means to sit on something, di + duduk + kan (didudukkan) means to be sat down, diduduki (diduduki) means to be sat on, etc).

As with any language, Indonesian grammar can often present an array of inconsistencies and exceptions. Some base words when combined with two affixes (eg. me + BW + kan) can produce an adjective rather than a verb, or even both. For example, bosan when combined with the affixes me- and -kan produces the word membosankan, meaning boring (adjective) or to bore (someone) (active verb). However, not all base words can be combined with affixes, nor are they always consistent in their subsequent usage and meaning. A prime example is the word tinggal which, when combined with affixes, can change quite dramatically in both meaning and grammatical use:

  • Tinggal (base word (BW) form) = to reside, live (in a place)
  • Meninggal (MeN+BW) = to die, pass away (short form of 'Meningal dunia' below)
  • Meninggal dunia (MeN+BW + world) = to pass away, to die (lit. pass on from the world)
  • Meninggalkan (MeN+BW+kan) = to leave (a place); to leave behind/abandon (someone/ something)
  • Ketinggalan (Ke+BW+an) = to miss (a bus, train, etc); to be left behind
  • Tertinggal (Ter+BW) = to be (accidentally) left behind
  • Ditinggalkan (Di+BW+kan) = to be left behind; to be abandoned
  • Selamat tinggal (word + BW) = goodbye (said to the person staying)

Noun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to base words. The following are examples of noun affixes:

Type of noun affixes

Affix

Example of root word

Example of derived word

Prefix

pe(N)-

duduk (sit)

penduduk (resident)


ke-

hendak (want)

kehendak (desire)


juru-

acara (event)

juru-acara (event host)

Infix

-el-

tunjuk (point)

telunjuk (index finger, command)


-em-

kelut (dishevelled)

kemelut (chaos, crisis)


-er-

gigi (teeth)

gerigi (toothed blade, serration)

Suffix

-an

bangun (wake up, raise)

bangunan (building)

Confix

ke-...-an

raja (king)

kerajaan (kingdom)


pe-...-an

kerja (work)

pekerjaan (occupation)

(N) and (R) indicate that if a word begins with certain letters (most often vowels or consonants k, p, s, t), the letter will either be omitted or other letters will replace it, most commonly with the letters in the bracket or m, ng, ny and l.

Similarly, verb affixes are attached to root words to form verbs. In Indonesian, there are:

Type of verb affixes

Affix

Example of root word

Example of derived word

Prefix

be(L)-

ajar (teach)

belajar (to study) - Intransitive


me(N)-

tolong (help)

menolong (to help) - Active transitive


me(NG)-

gambar (picture)

menggambar (to draw) - Active transitive


di-

ambil (take)

diambil (is being taken) - Passive transitive


memper-

dalam (depth)

memperdalam (to deepen)


dipe(R)-

dalam (deep)

diperdalam (is being further deepen)


te(R)-

makan (eat)

termakan (to have accidentally eaten)

Suffix

-kan

letak (place, keep)

letakkan (keep) - Imperative transitive


-i

jauh (far)

jauhi (avoid) - Imperative transitive

Confix

be(R)-...-an

pasang (pair)

berpasangan (to be paired)


be(R)-...-kan

dasar (base)

berdasarkan (based upon)


me(M)-...-kan

pasti (certain)

memastikan (to ensure)


me(N)-...-i

teman (companion)

menemani (to accompany)


mempe(R)-...-kan

guna (use)

mempergunakan (to misuse, to utilise)


mempe(L)-...-i

ajar (teach)

mempelajari (to study)


ke-...-an

hilang (disappear)

kehilangan (to lose)


di-...-i

sakit (pain)

disakiti (is being hurt)


di-...-kan

benar (right)

dibenarkan (is allowed to)


dipe(R)-...-kan

kenal (know, recognise)

diperkenalkan (is being introduced)

Adjective affixes are attached to base words to form adjectives:

Type of adjective affixes

Affix

Example of root word

Example of derived word

Prefix

te(R)-

kenal (know)

terkenal (famous)


se-

rupa (appearance)

serupa (similar (to))

Infix

-em-

cerlang (radiant bright)

cemerlang (bright, excellent)


-er-

sabut (husk)

serabut (dishevelled)

Confix

ke-...-an

barat (west)

kebaratan (westernized)

In addition to these affixes, Indonesia language also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro-, pra-, etc.

Pronouns

There are two forms of "we", kami or kita, depending on whether the speaker includes the person being talked to. Kami (exclusive) is used when the person or people being spoken to are not included, while kita (inclusive) includes the opposite party. Their usage is increasingly confused in colloquial Indonesian. There are two major forms of "I", which are saya and aku. Despite having the same meaning, saya is definitely the more formal form, whereas Aku is used often used with family, friends and between lovers. There are three common forms of "you", which are kamu, Anda and kalian. Anda is the more polite form of "you" and is used in conversations with someone you barely know, advertising, business situations or with someone whom you wish to respect. Kalian is the common plural form of "you" and is often said to be slightly informal.

NB: Because of the overall structure of Indonesian society and influences from regional dialects, many more different pronouns exist in Indonesian. Some of these 'additional pronouns' may show utmost politeness and respect (eg. saudara/saudari = you (male/female) or Anda sekalian = you (polite, plural form)), may be used only in the most informal of situations (eg. gua/ lu = me/ you - see Indonesian slang), or may even possess somewhat romantic or poetic nuances(eg. daku/dikau = me/you).

Common Indonesian Pronouns

Type

Indonesian

English

First Person

Saya (standard, polite), Aku (informal, familiar), Gua (informal, slang)

I, me


Kami (excl.), Kita (incl.)

We, us

Second Person

Anda (polite, formal), Saudara/Saudari (polite, formal)

You


Kamu (familiar, informal), (Eng)kau (familiar, informal), Lu (informal, slang)

You


Kalian (plural, informal), Anda sekalian (plural, formal), Saudara(i)-saudara(i) (polite)

You

Third Person

Ia, Dia

He, she, it


Beliau (high respect)

He, She


Mereka

They

[edit] Possessive pronouns

Type of possessive pronouns


Possessive pronouns

Example of root word

Example of derived word(s)

First person

Saya, Aku (I)

-ku

meja (table)

mejaku (my table)


Kami (we, referring to 1st and 3rd person), kita (we, referring to 1st and 2nd person)

... (milik) kami/kita

kursi (chair)

kursi (milik) kami, kursi (milik) kita (our chair)

Second person

Kamu (you)

-mu

meja (table)

mejamu (your table)


Anda, Saudara (you(polite))

... (milik) Anda/Saudara

kursi (chair)

kursi (milik) Anda/Saudara (your chair)


Kalian (you(plural))

... (milik) kalian

kursi (chair)

kursi (milik) kalian (your chair)

Third person

Dia, Ia (he, she, it)

-nya

meja (table)

mejanya (his, her, its table)


Beliau (he, she, it (polite))

... (milik) Beliau

meja (table)

meja (milik) Beliau (his, her, its table)


Mereka (they)

... (milik) mereka

kursi (chair)

kursi (milik) mereka (their chair)

Demonstrative pronouns

There are two kinds of demonstrative pronouns in the Indonesian language. Ini (this, these) is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker. Itu (that, those) is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker. There is no difference between singular form and the plural form. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a demonstrative pronoun. Also, the word yang is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/ someone.

Various Uses

Demonst. Pronoun

Simple Use

English Meaning

Ini

Buku ini

This book

Itu

Kucing itu

That cat

Demonst. Pronoun

Plural Form (via Noun duplication)

English Meaning

Ini

Buku-buku ini

These books

Itu

Kucing-kucing itu

Those cats

Demonst. Pronoun + yang

Example Sentence

English Meaning

Yang ini

Q: Anda mau membeli buku yang mana?

A: Saya mau beli yang ini

Q: Which book do you wish to purchase?

A: I would like this one (this book)

Yang itu

Q: Kucing mana yang makan tikusmu?

A: Yang itu!

Q: Which cat ate your mouse?

A: That one (that cat)!

Verbs

Verbs are not inflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as "yesterday") or by other tense indicators (sometimes referred to as aspect particles), such as belum (not yet) or sudah (already). On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and denote active-passive voices. Such affixes include prefixes, infixes, suffixes, and their combinations; all of which are often ignored in informal conversations.

Emphasis

Although the basic word order of Indonesian is Subject Verb Object (SVO), as mentioned above, it is possible to make frequent use of passive voice or to scramble word order, thus adding emphasis on a certain sentence particle. The particle being emphasised is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. In spoken Indonesian, the aspect of the sentence being emphasised is usually followed by a short pause before continuing on with the remainder of the sentence.

Some examples include:

  • Saya pergi ke pasar kemarin "I went to the market yesterday" — neutral, or with emphasis on the subject.
  • Kemarin saya pergi ke pasar "Yesterday I went to the market" — emphasis on yesterday.
  • Ke pasar saya pergi, kemarin "To the market I went yesterday" — emphasis on where I went yesterday.
  • Pergi ke pasar, saya, kemarin "To the market went I yesterday" — emphasis on the process of going to the market.

NB: Some of the above examples (namely the latter two) are more likely to be encountered in spoken Indonesian rather than written forms of the language.

Vocabulary

Indonesian as a modern dialect of Malay has borrowed heavily from many languages, including: Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Dutch, Chinese and many other languages, including other Austronesian languages. It is estimated that there are some 750 Sanskrit loanwords in modern Indonesian, 1,000 Arabic loans, some of Persian and Hebrew origin, some 125 words of Portuguese (also Spanish and Italian) origin and a staggering number of some 10,000 loanwords from Dutch.[7] The latter also comprises many words from other European languages, which came via Dutch, the so-called "International Vocabulary". The vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of its Austronesian (incl. Old Malay) heritage.

Although Hinduism and Buddhism are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, Sanskrit which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of Latin in English and other Western European languages. Residents of Bali and Java tend to be particularly proud of the Hindu-Buddhist heritage. Sanskrit is also the main source for neologisms. These are usually formed from Sanskrit roots. The loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of religion, art and everyday life. The Sanskrit influence came from contacts with India long ago before the time of Christ. The words are either directly borrowed from India or with the intermediary of the Old Javanese language. In the classical language of Java, Old Javanese, the number of Sanskrit loanwords is far greater. The Old Javanese — English dictionary by prof. P.J. Zoetmulder, S.J. (1982) contains no fewer than 25,500 entries. Almost half are Sanskrit loanwords. Sanskrit loanwords, unlike those from other languages, have entered the basic vocabulary of Indonesian to such an extent that, for many, they are no longer perceived to be foreign.

The loanwords from Arabic are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with Islam, as can be expected. Allah is the word for God even in Christian Bible translations. Many early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual Hebrew words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates. In the newer translations this practice is discontinued. They now turn to Greek names or use the original Hebrew Word. For example, the name Jesus was initially translated as 'Isa, but is now spelt as Yesus. Psalms used to be translated as Zabur, the Arabic name, but now it is called Mazmur which corresponds more with Hebrew.

Loanwords from Portuguese are common words, which were mainly connected with articles the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were among the first westerners to sail east to the "Spice Islands".

The Chinese loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just exclusively things Chinese. There is a considerable Chinese presence in the whole of Southeast Asia. According to the 2000 census, the relative number of people of Chinese descent in Indonesia is almost 1%, although this may likely be an underestimate.

The former colonial power, the Netherlands, left an impressive vocabulary. These Dutch loanwords, and also from other non Italo-Iberian, European languages loanwords which came via Dutch, cover all aspects of life. Some Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian. This problem is usually solved by insertion of the schwa. For example Dutch schroef [ˈsxruf]sekrup [səˈkrup].

As modern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources, there are many synonyms. For example, Indonesian has three words for "book", i.e. pustaka (from Sanskrit), kitab (from Arabic) and buku (from Dutch). These words have, unsurprisingly, slightly different meanings. A pustaka is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge. A derived form, perpustakaan means a library. A kitab is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidances. The Indonesian words for the Bible are Alkitab and Injil, both directly derived from Arabic. The book containing the penal code is also called the kitab. Buku is the most common word for books.

In addition to those above (and the borrowed words listed under the sub-heading History towards the top of this article), there are also direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as "karaoke" from Japanese, and "modem" from English.

See also: List of borrowed words in Indonesian

Spoken & informal Indonesian

Further information: Indonesian slang language

In very informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature (e.g. tidak (no) is often replaced with the Javanese nggak whilst seperti (like, similar to) is often replaced with kayak (pronounced kai-yah)). As for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as /e/ and /o/. In informal writing the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort. E.g.: capai becomes cape or capek, pakai become pake, kalau becomes kalo.

In verbs, the prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is usually retained. E.g.: mengangkat becomes ngangkat (the basic word is angkat). The suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in. E.g.: mencarikan becomes nyariin, menuruti becomes nurutin. The latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to Indonesian found in Jakarta and surrounding areas.

Writing system

Indonesian is written using the Latin alphabet. It is more phonetically consistent than many languages—the correspondence between sounds and their written forms is generally regular.

Consonants are represented in a way similar to Italian, although ‹c› is always /tʃ/ (like English ‹ch›), ‹g› is always /ɡ/ ("hard") and ‹j› represents /dʒ/ as it does in English. In addition, ‹ny› represents the palatal nasal /ɲ/, ‹ng› is used for the velar nasal /ŋ/ (which can occur word-initially), ‹sy› for /ʃ/ (English ‹sh›) and ‹kh› for the voiceless velar fricative /x/. Both /e/ and /ə/ are represented with an ‹e›.

One common source of confusion for foreign readers, particularly when reading place names, is the spelling changes in the language that have occurred since Indonesian independence. Commonly-used changes include:

Old
spelling

New
spelling

oe

u

tj

c

dj

j

j

y

nj

ny

sj

sy

ch

kh

The first of these changes (‹oe› to ‹u›) occurred around the time of independence in 1947; all of the others were a part of an officially-mandated spelling reform in 1972. Some of the old spellings (which were derived from Dutch orthography) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of the Indonesia is still sometimes written Soeharto, and the central Java city of Yogyakarta is sometimes written Jogjakarta.